An internality is the long-term benefit or cost to an individual that they do not consider when making the decision to consume a good or service. One way this is related to behavioral economics is by means of the concept of hyperbolic discounting, in which immediate consequences of a decision are disproportionately weighed compared to the future consequences. A potential cause is lack of access to full information regarding the associated costs and benefits prior to consumption. This contrasts with traditional economic theory, which makes the assumption that individuals are rational decision makers who take all personal costs into account when paying for goods and services.One example of a positive internality is the long run effect of exercising, if these are not taken into account when deciding whether to exercise. Future benefits that an individual may not take into consideration include a diminished risk of heart disease and higher bone density. A common example of a potential negative internality is the effect of smoking cigarettes on those who smoke. For the effect of secondhand smoke, see externality. Statistically, 80% of smokers want to quit, and 54% of people who are serious about quitting fail in a week or less. This implies that they do not act in their long-term best interest due to short-term discomfort, also known as a self-control problem. If the demand for cigarettes has a high price elasticity of demand, which evidence seems to suggest, the government can combat the negative internality by raising taxes. It is important to note that elasticity might change based on location and knowledge about the harmful health effects of smoking. In traditional economic theory, a tax diminishes the welfare of the poor because the tax burden shifts to low-income communities, as fewer can afford the good (cigarettes), and horizontal equity (economics) is distorted. However, behavioral economic theory suggests that the tax is not regressive if low-income communities have higher (healthcare) costs and more price sensitivity than individuals with higher incomes. Taxes imposed to combat internalities are most effective when they target a specific good. A tax on junk food could apply to a large variety of goods that are widely consumed, and the cost of the tax might be perceived as more detrimental than beneficial for society. A major issue with creating effective legislature against negative internalities is that the tax imposed should only reflect the cost that individuals do not factor into their consumption decisions. The difficulty in measuring individual knowledge is an obstacle to developing new policies. Another point of concern is that the group benefitting from the tax, such as smokers who want to quit, must be sizable enough to offset any backlash from tobacco companies and lobbyists.
In the following graphs, D' and S' are the demand and supply curves if producers and consumers take all external costs (EC) into consideration. The tax attempting to prevent the internality should be set equal to the difference between D and D' at the optimal quantity, which is the unmeasured internal cost (IC).
Changes in the internal structure during a "Topological transform"
Is there any field of topology which deals with the changes in internal structure of an object when it undergoes topological transform? If I'm transforming a cube into a sphere, is there any 'field of topology' which analyze the...
Hi all,
So quarks are given fractional charges, which then add to the total charge of the particle they constitute. My question is if the electromagnetic forces between quarks are taken into account? I was thinking that such things might be automatically taken care of via Feynman diagrams...
Internal symmetries of the SM -U(1), SU(2), SU(3)- are usually said to belong to abstract spaces unrelated to spacetime symmetries, have there been many attempts to relate internal symmetries to spacetime symmetries, and if so how far have they gotten?
hi all, i have a confusion about the internal energy change and work done in a isobaric system...
suppose i want to find the delQ in isobaric system in terms of P & V...now i may assume the delW part would be pdv=p(V2-V1)...as i m compressing the gas...
but what happens to the du?
and is the...
[b]1. We have some gas in a container at high pressure. The volume of the container is 469 cm^3. The pressure of the gas is 2.52*10^5 Pa. We allow the gas to expand at a constant temperature until its pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure, which at the time is .857*10^5 Pa. (a) Find...
This is a potentiometer circuit. I don't have the diagram so I hope you can follow me. This is the main circuit with the unknown emf E with internal resistance r of the main cell and with two resistors P and Q connected in series at the bottom of this rectangular circuit, p being connected near...
hi everyone,
in thermodynamics, when we calculate the heat capacity in constant volume, we assume Cv=dQ/dT..
well, but at isothermal condition suddenly they came up with Cv=dU/dT...
so i am getting stuck with this concept how they replace dQ with dU?
i know U= internal energy is only a...
I was reading about a case of total internal reflection in mirrors and something got me curious...
Is there anything such as 'weak refractions'??
In the diagram of the mirror I saw, as a ray of light from an object entered a mirror, it was reflected by the silver coating, and then by the...
Okay so I have conducted an experiment to find the internal resistance of a battery pack by gradient of a graph of voltage against current. All so far okay.
I went on to find the EMF also, again all so far okay.
Now I need the short circuit current, and I can't find any information anywhere...
Homework Statement
How to demonstrate that U is minimized at constant V and S, while H at constant P and S?
Homework Equations
ΔS universe = ΔS system + ΔS environment ≥ 0
ΔU system = δq reversible + δw reversible = δq irreversible + δw irreversible
ΔS environment = −∫(δq reversible / T)
dU...
Homework Statement
Helping someone regarding this Qns:
A Battery is formed by four 1.5 V identical cell in series. When a external resistor of 31 Ohm is connected across he battery, the current is 280 mA. Find the internal resistor of each cell.
Can someone help to solve pls?
Thank you...
Is this process known as "total internal reflection"? Or is it called something else? What is the name of this process that causes the entire material to light up even though the light is applied only to one side?
Take a look at the photos so you can see what I am asking about.
Notice how...
Homework Statement
Argon is stored in a container of volume 2L and a pressure of 5 atmospheres. The amount of gas present is 0.2 moles. Find:
(i) The absolute temperature of the gas
(ii) The number of atoms of gas in the container
(iii) The total mass of the gas
(iv) The total internal...
Homework Statement
A voltmeter is connected across a cell in a circuit containing a switch and a 2Ohm resistor. When the switch is open, the voltmeter reads 12V. When it is closed, the reading is 8V. Find the internal resistance of the cell.
Homework Equations
I tried to use V=IR - is I...
calculation of internal thread tensile strength
Hi All!
I've got a coupling device that has two internal threads of different pitch, length, diameter. The smaller thread takes a lifting bolt, the larger attaches to a piece of machinery.
I've been asked to work out the safe working load (SWL)...
A stone is falling under gravity in a vacuum. Is its internal energy increasing?
Well, since internal energy(Microscopic level) is defined as the energy associated with molecules(Sum of kinetic energy and potential energy of the molecules). The molecules inside the ball will not gain any K.E...
H = U+ pV
pV = nRT
H= U+ nRT
H= H (T)
I don't understand the transition from U+ nRT to H (T)
Can someone explain this?
I get that H = U + pV
But how is H= U+ nR
Homework Statement
The figure below shows a ray of light entering one end of an optical fiber at an angle of incidence i = 51.0°. The index of refraction of the fiber is 2.05.
Diagram link: http://www.webassign.net/walker/26-55.gif
(a) Find the angle the ray makes with the normal when...
Homework Statement
Find the lowest angle of θ1 given the apex angle is 60°. Air (n=1) is on the outside and inside (n=1.5)
ϕ is defined as 60 degrees.
Homework Equations
The Attempt at a Solution
θc = sin-1(\frac{1.00}{1.50}) = 41.81°
To my understanding, θ1 must...
Homework Statement
Use the law of conservation of energy to calculate the temperature increase expected from energy transferred to internal heat of the water.
There is more than one way to do this. Consider a mass, m, of water which falls over the cascade. If you wish, you may take the mass...
Hello I am a first year Mechatronics major (yes its a real major), and currently looking into the effects that magnetic and electric fields have on combustion. I have a few questions.
1) Concerning the electric field effects are the ions carried on the wall that carries the corresponding...
If I have 2 electricly charged bodies orbiting one another, the binding energy must contribute to the gravitation of the system. Their reletive KE must also. So the total gravitational mass of the system is greater then the sum of the indivual objects. If I used a laser and gravitational lensing...
Homework Statement
A battery has an internal resistance of 0.50 ohm. A number of identical light bulbs, each with a resistance of 15 ohm, are connected in parallel across the battery terminals. The terminal voltage of the batter is observed to be one-half the EMF of the battery. How many bulbs...
.
About a car internal combustion engine.
Lets suppose the engine torque is maximum at 3500 RPMs when the engine gets also its maximum load, let's say, a 90%. This kind of data is usually shown at WOT.
My question is: if the throttle is not wide open, but half open, allowing the cylinders...
Did any of you, read this new paper by Olaf Dreyer ?..
Can someone elaborate a little, what this paper is about. Looks interesting and new i can't get my head around yet !...
http://arxiv.org/abs/1203.2641
Internal Relativity
Olaf Dreyer
(Submitted on 12 Mar 2012)
General relativity...
Today, the Norwegian police published its report on what, in their estimation, worked, and did not work, in Norway in the emergency profession on that Black Friday.
A summary has been made in English,
https://www.politi.no/vedlegg/rapport/Vedlegg_1665.pdf
I haven't yet gone through it...
A simple circuit with 2 batteries and a resistor connected in series. The positive terminals are connected to each other via a 4.5 resistor. Their emfs and internal resistances are below. What is the resultant emf?
battery 1: ε=6V r=1Ω
battery 2: ε=24V r=0.5Ω
resistor connecting...
Hello,
I'am new here and having some troubles with understanding the difference between 2 related subjects.
I learned that internal energy contains 2 main components: kinetic energy and potential energy.
U=E_{K}+E_{p}
The related first law of thermodynamics (for closed systems)...
Homework Statement
I'm trying to understand two things:
1. How internal energy is distinct from kinetic and potential energy
2. The difference between internal energy and enthalpy.
Homework Equations
enthalpy ΔH = ΔU + PΔV
internal energy ΔU = Q + W = Q - PΔV
The Attempt at a Solution
I...
Homework Statement
If ΔWi denotes the amount of work done by a gas in being compressed isothermally to a given volume, ΔQ the amount of heat absorbed by the gas in this process, and ΔWa the amount of work done by the gas in being expanded adiabatically back to its original volume, then the...
I'm aware of the equation
ΔU = Q + W
ΔU is the change in internal energy which equals 3/2 nRΔT
Q is heat transfer
W is workdone
so PV = nRT
would it be correct to say that
ΔP V = nRΔT?
For isovolumetric process (i.e. no volume change, no work done),
can i say that
change in internal energy =...
Hello everyone, I am trying to work on this topic as my research. i plan on using a potentiometer but i want to be able to use the resistor (across the test cell) as the load and still be able to obtain two balance points. one for emf, and another for calculating internal resistance as the cell...
change in internal energy is a function of temperature. So if there is no change in temperature then there should no change in internal energy.
But consider this example.
work done in process
work done(W)= nRT*ln(P1/P2) (Δ)T=0; so it's isothermal)
heat supplied(Q)=0 (No heat is supplied...
Homework Statement
a) what is the density of dry air when the surface pressure is 1010hPa and the temperature is 27°C.
b) what is the internal energy of 1kg of dry air under these conditions?
Homework Equations
P=p*R*T where P is pressure and p is density.
The Attempt at a...
Hi,
I have already been familiar with that exterior symmetry is the spacetime symmetry. Such kind of symmetry has been depicted by Poincare' group.
Then I am still find the concept internal space/internal symmetry ambiguous.
And I cannot understand why put Spin in exterior symmetry not...
μ/T represents the change in entropy if we change the number of particles,, so according to the fundamental assumption of statistical mechanics μ/T should tell us about the tendency of two systems to exchange particles...
but I am having a hard time imagining how rotational or vibrational...
Assuming that the gas in these processes is an ideal one, is the change in internal energy in an isochoric process (volume remaining constant) the same as the change in internal energy of isobaric process (pressure remaining constant)? Mathematically I can derive that they're equivalent, but...
A 76 W light bulb with a resistance of 179 Ω is connected to a power supply with a 117 V. What is the internal resistance of the power supply? Express the answer with one decimal place.
So my attempt has been this but I'm not exactly sure whether or not so just making sure this would be...
Hi All,
I am trying to work through a QFT problem for independent study and I can't quite get my head around it. It is 5.16 from Tom Bank's book (http://www.nucleares.unam.mx/~Alberto/apuntes/banks.pdf) which goes as follows:
"Show that charge conjugation symmetry implies that the...
Homework Statement
In the past months I've been working on a work calculating the behavior of a wall at an object impacting into it. I thought I have made it by knowing the impact force and the pressure it makes but then I realized that to fully complete my work I have to somehow calculate the...
Homework Statement
See attachment ecxample001.
Homework Equations
See attachment D11.
The Attempt at a Solution
In the first equation (Cp/R = a+bT+cT^2...etc.), Cp/R is the constant pressure specific heat. The general formula for enthalpy change is h2-h1 = integral[Cp]dT, so does...
Lets say we have a mass attached to a rigid, massless rod that is fixed at the other end, so we have a system that can only undergo rotation. My question is, if we apply a force to the rigid rod (and not to the actual mass), how can we derive (using only F=Ma) the shear force distribution in the...
how would you determine an error at the 100C mark in a given mercury thermometer?Your answer should consist of a labelled sketch of the apparatus you would use and brief notes on procedure. Why is it important, at the same time, to note the atmospheric pressure? If the thermometer registers 103...
Homework Statement
A block slides to a stop along a table top. Which is true?
A. The work done by friction is equal to the force of friction times the distance that the block slid.
B. The work done on the block is equal to the force of friction times the distance that the block slid.
C. The...
I am reading on wikipedia about internal energy and the describe it as the energy required to create a system. Ithought that this was the definiton for enthalpy of formation. Was it meant by the definition of internal energy?
Hello everyone,
Recently I have been studying cavity resonators.
I noticed that all cavity resonators have air in them, but I was wondering what the effects would be if something other than air was used? For the sake of simplicity let's say we put a dielectric material in it with a...
Hello all,
I have following questions dangling in my mind, with a positive attitude of seeking help i want put them infront you geneus people, in my earlier post i get a good result and now i want to more insight of the very matter. kindly help me.
Using the concept of state of system, i...
what is the differece between internal conversion electrons, electron capture and auger electons? i don't understand. The name suggests electron capture and internal conversion electrons are the same thing... but then when i look it up internal conversion electrons seem to be the same as auger...